Cornelius a Lapide
Table of Contents
Synopsis of the Chapter
Here begins the second part of the epistle, in which the Apostle passes from faith and doctrines to morals consonant with the faith. In this chapter, therefore, he warns the faithful that they should present themselves as a sacrifice to God, and that they should prove and know what is the good, well-pleasing and perfect will of God: namely, first, in verse 3, that they should not exalt themselves over the gifts they have received, but should be wise unto sobriety, and in the manner of members of the same body, each one content with his own gift, should rightly use it for the benefit of his neighbors.
Secondly, in verse 9, that they should give attention to a sincere, prudent, patient, and strong love. Whence He enumerates the duties and conditions of love.
Thirdly, in verse 16, that they should join humility to love, by which also they may render good for evil, and may overcome evil with good. For these two virtues are most especially to be commended to Christians, namely charity and humility. For these are the summary of the others, and in these two consists Christian life and perfection.
Vulgate Text: Romans 12:1-21
1. I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercy of God, that you present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, pleasing unto God, your reasonable service. 2. And be not conformed to this world, but be reformed in the newness of your mind: that you may prove what is the good, and the acceptable, and the perfect will of God. 3. For I say, by the grace that is given me, to all that are among you, not to be more wise than it behoveth to be wise, but to be wise unto sobriety, and according as God hath divided unto every one the measure of faith. 4. For as in one body we have many members, but all the members have not the same office: 5. So we being many are one body in Christ, and every one members one of another. 6. And having different gifts, according to the grace that is given us: either prophecy, to be used according to the rule of faith; 7. Or ministry, in ministering; or he that teacheth, in doctrine; 8. He that exhorteth, in exhorting; he that giveth, with simplicity; he that ruleth, with carefulness; he that sheweth mercy, with cheerfulness. 9. Let love be without dissimulation. Hating that which is evil, cleaving to that which is good. 10. Loving one another with the charity of brotherhood, with honour preventing one another. 11. In carefulness not slothful. In spirit fervent. Serving the Lord. 12. Rejoicing in hope. Patient in tribulation. Instant in prayer. 13. Communicating to the necessities of the saints. Pursuing hospitality. 14. Bless them that persecute you: bless, and curse not. 15. Rejoice with them that rejoice; weep with them that weep. 16. Being of one mind one towards another. Not minding high things, but consenting to the humble. Be not wise in your own conceits. 17. To no man rendering evil for evil. Providing good things, not only in the sight of God, but also in the sight of all men. 18. If it be possible, as much as is in you, have peace with all men: 19. Revenge not yourselves, my dearly beloved; but give place unto wrath, for it is written: Revenge is mine, I will repay, saith the Lord. 20. But if thy enemy be hungry, give him to eat; if he thirst, give him to drink. For, doing this, thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head. 21. Be not overcome by evil, but overcome evil by good.
Verse 1: I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercy of God
1. I BESEECH YOU THEREFORE, BRETHREN, BY THE MERCY OF GOD, — διὰ τῶν οἰκτιρμῶν, by the compassions, namely those exhibited to you, O Gentiles, by God through Christ, of which I have spoken in the entire three preceding chapters; as if he said: I have taught you up to now, O Gentiles, that you have been called to justice and salvation through the grace and mercy of God, but the Jews have been repelled from it; now, that I may pass from doctrines to morals, I beseech you, O faithful Gentiles, who have obtained such great mercy, grace, and justice from God, that you should be grateful to God, that you should live worthily of God and of such great grace, that you should manifest in deed what faith dictates, and what God and Christ demand of you.
Note: οἰκτιρμοί, that is compassions, are those which the Hebrews call רחמים rachamim, that is bowels of mercy, that is, visceral mercy and compassion from the innermost depths, namely when one is moved and touched by another's misery from the innermost marrow, so that he seems to wish to pour out his own bowels upon him. For such was this mercy of God toward us, when He poured out His own bowels and His only-begotten Christ Himself upon us. Of which Zacharias sings in Luke 1: "Through the bowels of the mercy of our God, in which the dayspring from on high hath visited us." These bowels have an immense πάθος (passion). Again, through the τὸ "brethren," the Apostle wins for himself the grace and benevolence of the faithful, even of the Jews.
Secondly, the word "brethren" has force and energy for persuading to charity, and to the other things which the Apostle here commends to the faithful. For, as Tertullian beautifully and truly says in Apology 39, writing against the Gentiles: "Brethren, we are yours by the right of nature, our one mother; although you are scarcely men, because evil brethren. But how much more worthily are they both called and held to be brethren who have acknowledged one God as Father, who have drunk of one spirit of sanctity, who from one womb of the same ignorance have looked up in awe to one light of truth? Again, from family substance we are brethren, which among you (O Gentiles) almost dissolves brotherhood. And so because we are mingled in soul and spirit, we have no doubt about communicating in property: all things are common among us, except wives." Whence Tertullian added there, that this was the cry of the Gentiles concerning the Christians by way of saying: "See how they love one another, and how they are ready to die for one another!"
THAT YOU PRESENT YOUR BODIES. — In Greek παραστῆσαι, that is, as the Syriac says, דתקיטון dattekimun, that is, that you may stand, as if to say: Stand and offer to God your bodies, alienate them from yourselves, and transfer them as a living sacrifice into the dominion of God, that you may use them, not according to your pleasure, but for the worship and honor of God. So S. Chrysostom.
A LIVING SACRIFICE, — that is, given to virtues; because flesh given to vices is dead, says S. Gregory, hom. 22 on Ezechiel, and S. Ambrose here: so in 1 Peter 2 it is said: "That being dead to sins, we should live to justice." But this is a mystical sense. Secondly, others say: living, that is, formed by charity. Thirdly, living, that is, which carries life within itself, namely Christ, and may say: We bear the death of Jesus in our body, that the life of Jesus also may be manifested in our body. But these too are mystical.
I say therefore: Paul here alludes to the ancient sacrifices of the Jews and Gentiles, which were slain, and to those, on the testimony of S. Chrysostom, he opposes new living sacrifices, as if to say: When I say, that you should present your bodies as a sacrifice to God, I do not mean it thus, that they should be slain, as the sacrifices of oxen are slaughtered, but that from your bodies, not slain but living and mortified, you should make a sacrifice to God. Therefore the body of the faithful and of the saints is a living sacrifice: first, because it remains alive; secondly and better, because it offers itself living to God through the works of a new spiritual life, namely of charity, almsgiving, prayer, and any other virtues: so Origen and S. Chrysostom. For every work, says S. Augustine in book X On the City of God, chap. 5, which is done so that we may cling to God in holy fellowship, by a general name is sacrifice and offering; thirdly and most properly, through acts of mortification the body becomes a living sacrifice, because while living it is mortified, chastised, and subjected to the spirit for performing every duty of the spirit, to the honor and service of God.
For mortification is a kind of living death: for it makes the concupiscences of the flesh die in the body, while it cuts them off through living acts of continence, abstinence, patience, and penance; so that the body is properly a dead sacrifice, because it dies to its vital concupiscences, and mortifies, slays, and immolates them to God: yet let it also be the same a living sacrifice, through living acts of contrary virtues. Therefore the Apostle wishes that we should always present our heart to God as a living sacrifice: namely, that we should always be intent upon the mortification of the body, that is, of the concupiscences of the body: and so that we may prepare ourselves for a quiet, holy, and perfect life, and even for martyrdom, if it should be necessary, to be undergone for Christ and piety. For our enemies are the concupiscences: if therefore we conquer and slay them, we shall offer a sacrifice to God. For from this is named "victim" and "host," as the Poet sings:
The victim that has fallen by a victorious right hand is so called:
From enemies subdued the host gets its name.
Origen says beautifully: "If you conquer and cut off the pride of your body, you immolate a calf to God; if anger, a ram; if lust, a he-goat; if the wandering and slippery flights of thoughts, a dove and a turtledove." Again the same Origen: "The first sacrifice after the Apostles is that of the martyrs; the second, of virgins; the third, of the continent; the fourth, of the married."
Similarly D. Thomas notes here that there is a threefold sacrifice: the first of the soul, namely prayer; the second of the body, namely mortification, fasting, abstinence, chastity; the third of works, namely almsgiving. So S. Cyprian, book III, epist. 25, consoles Nemesian and the others condemned to the mines for the faith of Christ, grieving that they were there deprived of the sacrifice of the Eucharist, by saying that they themselves had been made living sacrifices to God: "You celebrate and offer a sacrifice to God, both precious and glorious alike, and one which will most greatly profit you for the recompense of heavenly rewards, since the divine Scripture says: A sacrifice to God is a troubled spirit; a contrite and humble heart, O God, Thou wilt not despise. This sacrifice you offer to God, this sacrifice you celebrate without interruption day and night, having been made sacrifices to God, and presenting yourselves as holy and immaculate victims, as the Apostle exhorts and says: I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercy of God, that you present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God."
PLEASING TO GOD. — The τὸ "to God" can be referred to "pleasing" along with our Translator, or to "present," and to all that follows; and this is more apt and fuller, as is clear from the Greek. For Paul wishes us to set before God our body, as a living, holy, pleasing sacrifice, namely so that it may first be a living sacrifice to God; secondly, that it may be a holy sacrifice to God; and finally, that it may be a sacrifice pleasing to God. For so the Greek has: Παραστῆσαι τὰ σώματα ὑμῶν θυσίαν ζῶσαν, ἁγίαν, εὐάρεστον τῷ Θεῷ. The Apostle adds the τὸ "pleasing," because a sacrifice can be holy in itself but not pleasing to God, namely if the one offering it displeases God. So many fast, go on pilgrimage, mortify their bodies, not their mind, not their soul; because they are proud, headstrong, rebellious and envious, etc. Hence neither do they themselves please God, nor their sacrifices, inasmuch as they are offered by sinners, who remain in their sins. And therefore, although they are good in themselves, yet with God they merit neither grace nor glory. So S. Augustine, in the book On False and True Penitence, chap. 15, and S. Gregory, book VII, epist. 126.
Note: Paul here alludes to the conditions of the Jewish victims. For first, the Aaronic victim had to be without blemish, whole and sound. Hence Paul requires it to be "living." Secondly, by the very immolation it was sanctified, so that it was not lawful for it to be touched by the unclean. So here Paul requires it to be "holy," namely that we should consecrate the body to God by devotion of mind. Thirdly, in the very burning of the victim it was said to become and to be a sweet-smelling odor to God. So here Paul requires it to be "pleasing to God." Fourthly, salt was added to the victim, as is clear from Lev. 2:13. By salt is signified spiritual wisdom. Whence Christ, in Mark 9:49, says: "Have salt in yourselves," namely so that you may do all things with reason and spiritual wisdom, and refer them to the glory of God.
The altar of this sacrifice, says Gregory, hom. 22 on Ezechiel, is the heart, in which namely from the sorrow of compunction the fire burns, and the flesh is consumed. And such, he says, we see daily in the temple, who, mindful of the eternal judgment, slaughter themselves as a sacrifice to God in the lament of compunction, so that, chastising their bodies, they may present them as a holy sacrifice, pleasing to God.
HOLY. — "Holy" is that which is dedicated to God and to the worship of God, and is separated from every use, not only unclean, but also profane. Paul therefore here commands that our body be separated from all servitude of iniquity, that it may be devoted to the most holy service and worship of God; as if to say: Previously, O Romans, your body served idols, lust, the belly, ambition; you were martyrs of the world and the devil: now let it serve God alone, as something holy and consecrated to God.
Secondly, "holy" is the same as pure and unsullied. A holy sacrifice therefore is an unpolluted and uncontaminated body, and the very chastity, purity, and integrity of the body. Thus a virgin is called "holy," that is, pure, "both in body and in spirit," 1 Cor. 7:34.
YOUR REASONABLE SERVICE, — as if to say, says Anselm: Do good works in such a way that you can render an account of them.
Secondly, S. Basil in the Shorter Rules, rule 230: "Let your service be reasonable," he says, namely that you may fulfill the divine will considerately and circumspectly, with sound reason and right counsel, that you may follow reason as your guide, not the impulse and desire of the soul.
Thirdly, D. Thomas thus explains "reasonable service," as if Paul said: Let the affliction of the bodies not be excessive, but moderate and reasonable. For, as S. Bernard says, sermon 49 on the Canticles: "Discretion is the moderator and charioteer of the virtues, affections, and morals; it imposes order on every virtue, order grants measure, and beauty and perpetuity. Take this away, virtue will be vice." Whence the same Bernard elsewhere teaches that he who is indiscreet and excessive in subduing and mortifying the body unjustly snatches away these four things, namely, "effect from the body, affection from the soul, example from the neighbor, honor from God." And from this he concludes that "such a one incurs the crime of sacrilege, since he abuses the living temple of God, and detracts from the honor owed to God: since indeed the fall of one frightens very many others, and draws them back from the way of spiritual life:" namely when they see someone, through excessive rigor of life and excessive penances, fall into illnesses, phantasies, ineptitude, and thereupon incur death itself.
Fourthly and best; "reasonable," that is, not corporeal, as was once that of the Jews; but let your "service" be spiritual, that is, your worship and latria, as the Greek has. Again, let your worship here not be irrational, as was that of the Gentiles foolishly worshipping idols; but let it be reasonable, namely such as befits rational men; namely sacrifice not with cattle, but with faith, hope, charity; not to idols, but to God. So S. Chrysostom, Photius, and Theodoret.
Whence in Greek it is λογικὴν λατρείαν, logical, that is, rational, latria or worship, by which God is worshipped rationally — exhibit and offer this to God. Furthermore λογική, or reasonable, is the worship which right reason dictates. But right reason dictates that God is to be worshipped more by interior faith, hope, piety, love, and purity of mind, than by external bodily ceremonies; as if Paul said: I wish, O faithful, that you should present your body, as a sacrifice to God, not bodily, not irrational, but rational and spiritual; namely so that the body itself, and all the motions and acts of the body, may be offered to God, as it were animated, vivified, directed, and governed by a pure and holy mind, reason, and spirit.
Fifthly, others say: The reasonable service is the sacrifice of the Eucharist, namely the human and rational body of Christ, offered to God: because in the Canon of the Mass, and in the Liturgies of S. Basil and S. Chrysostom the Eucharist is called the rational sacrifice. But the preceding words here demand another sense, namely the one I have assigned; for the Apostle says: "That you should present your bodies," and not the body of Christ, "a sacrifice to God."
Verse 2: And be not conformed to this world
2. AND BE NOT CONFORMED TO THIS WORLD. — Paul has spoken of the sacrifice of the body, now he treats of the oblation of the soul, whose perfection lies in two things: first, that it withdraw itself from harmful and staining things; secondly, that it turn itself to those things by which it advances and is perfected. Whence concerning the first the Apostle says: "Be not conformed to this world;" concerning the second: "Be reformed in the newness of your mind." For, as S. Augustine says, book XXII On the City of God, chap. 16: "Where we are reformed lest we be conformed to this world, there we are conformed to the Son of God."
Note: He does not say, Do not use the world: for this is impossible. For we must use food, drink, rest, recreation, men; but, "Be not conformed," in Greek μὴ συσχηματίζεσθε, do not be configured, that is, do not put on the figure of the world, do not become such as the world and worldly people are, namely vain, proud, ambitious, seeking only earthly things, not heavenly ones.
BUT BE REFORMED IN THE NEWNESS OF YOUR MIND. — As if to say: Flee the figure of the world, and take on a new form of mind; cast off the fragile figure of the old and carnal life, and put on the new and stable form of spiritual life. Here observe: To the world Paul attributes σχῆμα, that is figure, for the figure is not very durable and is external. The figure therefore signifies the inconstancy and appearance of the world rather than its existence. To the newness of mind he attributes μορφή, that is form, by which is signified the solidity of spiritual things, and their permanence: for form is more constant and interior, and pertains to substance. So S. Chrysostom.
For "reformamini," in Greek it is μεταμορφοῦσθε, that is, as S. Cyprian reads, epist. 77 to Nemesian, "be transformed," namely so that you may pass from the old figure into a new form, as if to say: Strive for the daily renewal of your mind, that by cutting away vices, the mind may be daily renewed in virtues: and so by this metamorphosis it will come about that day by day you may be transmuted more and more into other men. For always, however much we have advanced, we have need of this metamorphosis and transformation.
Note first: He does not say, "be made new," do new works; but, "be reformed," and take on the form of pristine newness. For just as fire heats more vehemently and longer, because it has form and heat, from which the heating flows; so Paul wishes that we put on newness as a form, that through it we may continually work the works of newness, as if to say: Put on the form of newness of sense, that is, as in Greek it is νοός, of mind; that you may renew the mind with virtues, that you may love and seek those things which belong to mind and spirit, that you may produce new, spiritual, and divine works from this new and divine form of the Holy Spirit.
Note secondly: Just as oldness in Scripture is the sin of Adam and all things that followed from it, both sins and punishments and miseries, such as concupiscence, ignorance, error, etc.; so on the contrary newness is the remission of sins, grace, charity, virtues, alacrity, zeal; and just as we have fallen back into the oldness already mentioned through sin, so in turn we are renewed from the same through penance and fervor, and the pursuit of a new life.
On this matter S. Gregory beautifully, in book XXII of the Morals, chap. 4: "Our spirit, while it is being purified by the fire of love, always preserves in itself the clarity of beauty by the daily renewal of fervor; for the mind that strives always to begin through desire does not know how to grow old through torpor. Hence indeed it is said through Paul: 'Be renewed in the spirit of your mind.' Hence the Psalmist, who had already arrived at the summit of perfection, said as if just beginning: 'I said, now I have begun,' because evidently unless we want to grow weary of what we have begun, it is greatly necessary that we believe ourselves to be beginning daily."
Wherefore S. Anthony, when about to die, gave to his disciples this one precept of life, as a kind of stimulus to every virtue, as S. Athanasius testifies in his Life: "Let this be the first command common to all: that no one should grow weary in the vigor of the resolution he has undertaken, but rather, as one beginning, should always increase what he has begun. I indeed, my little sons, walk according to the words of the Scriptures, the way of the Fathers: for now the Lord invites me, now I desire to see heavenly things. But I admonish you, O my own bowels, lest you suddenly lose the labor of so great a time; today you may think you have just taken up the religious pursuit, and let the fortitude of the will you have begun grow."
A similar precept Barlaam gave when about to die to Josaphat, formerly king, now his disciple and an anchorite, as Damascene testifies in the History of Barlaam and Josaphat, chap. 39: "Now, since the time of my death is at hand, and that desire which always held me, namely to be with Christ, fellow-nursed and equal to me, is now being fulfilled; do you bury my body in the earth, and return dust to dust. But afterwards stay yourself in this place, pursuing the manner of spiritual life you have undertaken, and retaining the memory of my insignificance. But you, son, do not fear the labor of religious exercise, nor grow faint at the length of time, at the snares of the demons: rather, fortified by the power of Christ, boldly mock at their feebleness." He then adds a stimulus, saying: "Be of such a mind toward the hardness of labors and the long duration of time, as one daily expecting departure from life, and considering the same day to be for you both the beginning and the end of monastic life. Thus always forgetting those things that are behind, and stretching yourself out to those that are before, pursue toward the goal, toward the prize of the supernal vocation of God in Christ Jesus."
With a similar stimulus S. Francis incited himself and his brethren to the renewal of life and the fervor of spirit toward the end of his life, as S. Bonaventure relates in his Life, chap. 14: "Let us begin, brothers, to serve the Lord our God, for up until now we have made little progress." S. Francis also burned, says Bonaventure, with a great desire to return to the first beginnings of humility, that he might minister to the lepers as he had at the start, and recall the body, now collapsed from labor, to its pristine service. He proposed, with Christ as his guide, to do mighty things, and with his limbs failing, strong and fervent in spirit, he hoped for a new triumph over the enemy in fresh combat: for neither languor nor sloth has any place where the stimulus of love always urges on to greater things.
THAT YOU MAY PROVE WHAT IS THE GOOD, AND ACCEPTABLE, AND PERFECT WILL OF GOD. — "That you may prove," that is, that you may search out and consider, says Origen.
Secondly and better, "that you may prove," that is, you may experience, and by a certain spiritual judgment and taste recognize, and, as the Syriac says, distinguish, savor, and feel what God requires of you, what is willed by Him, namely what is good, what is acceptable, what is perfect.
Here observe: The more we are reformed in the spirit of our mind, the more we are illuminated by God, and the more, with a purified mind, we prove and savor what is good, better, and best, willed by God and pleasing to God.
Note: The Apostle here distinguishes a threefold will of God: for one is "good," another "acceptable," another "perfect."
You will ask how these three are to be distinguished? S. Anselm responds first: "The good will of God," he says, is in beginners and the married; "acceptable" is in those advancing and the continent; "perfect" is in the perfect and in virgins.
Secondly, others say: "Good will," they say, is that which is not from an angry God. Again, "good will" is that which wills what is absolutely good: but such is not that which wills what is only permitted out of indulgence, in the way that second marriages are permitted, says the Commentary ascribed to S. Jerome.
Thirdly, S. Chrysostom says: "The good will," he says, is the old law; "acceptable," is the Gospel, which surpasses the old law. Again S. Basil in the Shorter Rules, quest. 276: "The good will of God" is, he says, that we should will what is in itself, and of its kind, good. "Acceptable," when that of the Apostle is done: Do all things to the glory of God; and: Let all things be done honestly, and according to order. "Perfect," when it is in no part deficient, but in all respects right and perfect.
Fourthly and best, will here is the same as what is willed, or that which God wills to be done by us; as if he said: The sense therefore is: that you may know what is the good will of God, that is, what God wills to be done by us as good; and acceptable, that is, better; and perfect, that is, best and most pleasing to Him. For these are the three degrees of good willed by God, or of the good which God requires from us. The Greek text signifies the same thing more clearly, which has thus, τί τὸ θέλημα τοῦ Θεοῦ, τὸ ἀγαθὸν καὶ εὐάρεστον καὶ τέλειον. Which S. Augustine, book X On the City of God, chap. 6, Ambrose, and Chrysostom translate, "that you may prove what is the will of God, what is good and well-pleasing and perfect," that is, what is good, better, and perfect, as the Commentary of Jerome has it.
The Apostle is speaking of the will of sign, or of precept and counsel, which God proposes to men to be fulfilled; he is not speaking of the will of God's good pleasure, for this is necessarily fulfilled. Cajetan therefore is not right in referring the τὸ "acceptable" to men, to whom the will of God is pleasing and sweet, and therefore pleases: for the Apostle wishes that we should advance and ascend gradually day by day by degrees: that first we may savor and work good things, secondly better things, thirdly best things and most pleasing to God.
The Apostle seems in what follows to explain this threefold will of God, and in particular to describe; namely, he describes the good will from verse 2 to 3, which consists in this, that we should be wise unto sobriety, and that we should perform our duty rightly and modestly according to the grace given to us. The well-pleasing will of God He seems to describe from verses 9 and 16, namely, that it consists in sincere, fervent, strong, and liberal love. Finally, He seems to describe the perfect will of God from verse 16 to the end of the chapter, namely, that it consists in perfect charity, which has joined to it remarkable humility, by which we go before even our enemies in love, and return them good for evil, and so overcome evil with good. For this is perfect charity, most pleasing to God, and therefore the perfect will of God. Wherefore S. Clement, in book II of the Apostolic Constitutions, chap. LXV, refers these things to the salvation of souls: "We have heard from the mouth of our Lord Jesus Christ, and being well taught we declare what is the good, well-pleasing and perfect will of God, which has been declared to us through Jesus Christ; namely, that none should perish, but rather that all men, when they have believed in Him with one consent, celebrating the same with one mind and mouth in praises, the same may live forever." Hence among the acts and duties of this good will, the Apostle in verse 7 sets down doctrine, exhortation, mercy, hospitality, etc.
The Apostle therefore wills that we should strive first well, then better, and finally most perfectly to know and fulfil the most holy will of God in all things: for this will of God is the rule, measure, fount and origin of all virtue and sanctity, to which therefore our will must be wholly conformed, if we wish to be holy and perfect.
A memorable example of this matter is recounted by the divine Tauler, in his Dialogue between the Theologian and the Beggar, page 685. Because it is rare, and clearly shows the point and pinnacle of Christian perfection which the Apostle here touches upon and prescribes, and has been a great instruction and incitement to many toward it, I shall write it out here: "There was once a certain distinguished Theologian, who for eight years by continual prayers desired to obtain from the Lord that He would show him some man who could teach him the way of truth. And when on one occasion he was burning with the most vehement desire for this matter, a certain voice fell from heaven and addressed him thus: Go out to the threshold of the temple, and you will meet there a man who will teach you the way of truth. Going out therefore he found a certain beggar with broken, filthy, muddy feet, whose garments in all you would scarcely value at three obols. Greeting him he addressed him thus: May God give you a prosperous morning. The beggar answered: I do not remember ever to have had an adverse morning. The Master goes on: Well then, may God make you fortunate. Why do you speak thus? The beggar replied: But I was never at any time unfortunate. And he: Be happy: what do these words of yours mean? And the poor man: Never was I unhappy. Once again the Master: May God save you. Now, speak more openly; for I do not grasp what you say. Now hear his divine spirit: Then the poor man answered: I will do it gladly. You wished me, Master, a prosperous morning, and I answered that I have never had an adverse morning: for when I am pressed by hunger, I praise God; if I suffer cold, if hail, if snow, if rain falls, if the air is serene or turbulent, I praise God; if I am wretched and despised, I likewise praise God, and therefore a sad morning has never befallen me. You wished also that I might become fortunate, and I answered that I have never been unfortunate: for I know how to live with God, and I am certain that whatever He does cannot but be best. Hence whatever He either gave or permitted to befall me, whether it was pleasing or contrary, sweet or bitter, I joyfully received it from Him as best, and therefore I was never unfortunate. You said moreover that God should make me happy; to which similarly I added that I have never been unhappy: for I have determined to cleave only to the divine will, into which I have so wholly poured all my own will, that whatever He wills, I also will, and that I resigned my own will entirely to Him."
Hear a more sublime philosophy: "When the beggar had related these things, the Master again addressed him thus: What, I beg, would you be about to say, if the Lord of Majesty should wish to plunge you into the abyss? And he said: Should He plunge me into the abyss? Indeed, if He should do so, I have two arms with which I would embrace Him. One is true humility, and I place this beneath Him, and through it I am united to His most sacred humanity. The other, and the right one, is love, which is united to His divinity, and through this very thing I embrace Him round about, so that He would be compelled to descend with me to hell. Yet it would be more desirable for me to be in hell with God than in heaven without Him. From these things, therefore, that Master learned that true resignation with profound humility is the most compendious path to God."
Hear the summit of wisdom: "Thereupon he again inquired of that beggar whence he had come. To whom he answered that he had come from God. And when the Master asked where he had found Him: There, said he, where I forsook all creatures. And the Master: But where did you leave God? The poor man answered: In pure hearts, and in men of good will. And the Master: Who are you? He answered that he was a king. The Master inquiring where his kingdom was, he answered that it was in his own soul. For so I know how to govern both my external and internal senses, that all the affections and powers of my soul are subject to me. And that this kingdom is excellent above all the kingdoms of this world, no one doubts. And again the Master: What has led you to this perfection? The poor man answered: Truly my silence, my sublime meditations, and my union with God. In no thing that was less than God could I find rest. But now God I have found, and in Him I have peace and everlasting rest."
Verse 3: For I say, by the grace given to me
3. FOR I SAY. — As if to say: These things which I am now about to say are works pleasing to God and perfect, which I said you ought to do: for the word "for" gives the reason of what precedes, and connects with them what follows, as if to say: I said, that you may prove what is the will of God. For this is the will of God, that you do not be wise more than is fitting, but be wise unto sobriety, etc.; which it behooves you to do fully, if you wish to be true Christians. The Apostle adds that he says these things through the grace given to him, that is through the spiritual skill and wisdom breathed into him by the Holy Spirit. So Ambrose.
Secondly, "through grace," namely by which he knew himself to be welcome and acceptable to the Roman faithful, so that he might dare freely to say anything to them. So Origen.
Thirdly and best, "through grace," that is through the apostolate, or the Apostolic office freely given to me by God, as if to say: From the Apostolic gift, office and authority I say and proclaim what follows.
NOT TO BE WISER THAN ONE OUGHT TO BE; BUT TO BE WISE UNTO SOBRIETY. — As if to say: It behooves us to keep the measure and the mean in every virtue: for virtue, if it sinks into extremes, becomes a vice, says Origen.
Secondly, S. Irenaeus, book V, chap. XX; S. Augustine, epistle 47; Gregory, homily 3 on Ezekiel; and Anselm, explain it thus, as if to say: Be not curious in scrutinizing matters of faith, so as to wish to know more and beyond what sound faith teaches or permits; for this is the source of heresies.
Thirdly, S. Chrysostom expounds it thus, as if to say: One ought not to think more of oneself than is fitting; but to esteem oneself soberly, sparingly and with modesty, as the Syriac translates; especially lest anyone proudly and petulantly attributing and arrogating something to himself, as follows, should extend himself beyond the measure of his own talent, and intrude himself into another's talent and office — for example, that a Grammarian should arrogate to himself judgment of theological matters, that a layman should wish to decide on sacred things. So Ambrose and Basil in the Shorter Rules, rule 264. That this is the sense is clear from what follows.
BUT TO BE WISE UNTO SOBRIETY. — In Greek εἰς τὸ σωφρονεῖν, that is, εἰς σωφροσύνην, which Irenaeus, book V, chap. XX, renders, "be wise unto prudence;" Jerome, book I Against Jovinian, "be wise unto chastity;" S. Augustine, epistle 47, "be wise unto temperance." Now temperance, says Augustine, Origen, Ambrose and Oecumenius: "Faith is the measure and tempering by which each one ought to act, so as to restrain himself within his own bounds." And this our Interpreter intends when he renders it, "to be wise unto sobriety." For this properly is σωφροσύνη, or, as the Greek has it in beautiful paronomasia, φρονεῖν εἰς σωφροσύνην, as if you should say, to be wise so as to be wise soberly. Hence S. Chrysostom and the Syriac translate, be wise unto modesty, that is unto humility. The Greek σωφροσύνη, says S. Chrysostom, is so called ἀπὸ τοῦ σώας τὰς φρένας ἔχειν, that is, from having minds whole; and modesty and humility make minds whole. For the immodest and proud man cannot be sound, that is, cannot stand firm, cannot be of sound and steadfast judgment and purpose, but loses his wits, goes astray, and becomes more raging than any madman, says S. Chrysostom.
Hence S. Bernard, explaining these words of the Apostle morally, in his sermon on Proverbs III, Blessed is the man who finds wisdom: "Sober wisdom consists in repentance for past sins, in contempt of present comforts, in desire of future rewards. You have plainly found wisdom, if you weep over the sins of your former life, if you make little of the desirable things of this age, if you long for eternal blessedness with all your desire; you have found wisdom, if each of these things tastes to you as it really is, so that you discern and distinguish, by a certain inward savor of the soul, these things as bitter and altogether to be fled, those things also as fleeting and transitory to be despised, but those others as perfect goods to be sought after with all desire." Then he adds: "And this indeed is sober wisdom, and it knows no vomiting, where the cold of fear from the recollection of sins, and the fervor of charity from the longing for divine promises, removes the tepidness of those occupations which are not the worst; so that neither do you vomit out wisdom, nor are you vomited out by it."
AND TO EVERYONE AS GOD HAS DIVIDED. — The Roman editions read τὸ ἑκάστῳ, not the Greek, and it must be read so that the sense may stand. For the sense is, as if to say: I say that each one must be wise unto sobriety, and be wise (for the "to be wise" must here be repeated) in that manner and measure as God has divided to each.
TO EVERYONE AS. — It is a hyperbaton. For the proper order requires that you transpose these words and say: "As God has divided to each;" unless you prefer to refer this further back to the word "I say," as if: I say to each of you, that he be wise, as God has divided and apportioned to him his own measure of faith and wisdom.
THE MEASURE OF FAITH. — First, S. Augustine and Irenaeus, in the places already cited, explain it thus, as if to say: Every human intellect ought to contain itself within the measure and limit of the faith.
Secondly, Toletus understands by "the measure of faith" the measure of faithfulness, that is, those talents, functions and graces which each has received from God and the Church, that he may faithfully dispense and administer them; so that it would be a metonymy, by which the functions committed to each one's trust are called faith, or the measure of faith.
Thirdly and best, S. Chrysostom, Theodoret, Origen, Ambrose, and Oecumenius: "Faith is taken metonymically for the gifts of faith and grace, especially the external and visible ones, which in the primitive Church the Holy Spirit conferred upon the faithful." Hence in verses 6 and following, Paul calls this measure of faith "charismata," that is, different donations of the Holy Spirit, namely, that the Holy Spirit gave to this one prophecy, to that one doctrine, to a third exhortation, to a fourth ministry, etc., in Greek χαρίσματα, that is gifts, different talents. Behold, here Paul explains the measure of faith which God divides to various men in various ways, as I said on verse 3. Namely, these measures of faith are different gifts and graces which God has variously distributed to the faithful, so that each one may use and be content with his own grace and his own gift, and not strive after another, as if to say: This distribution of graces, this order and limit of gifts is from God, and whoever disturbs it, and is wiser than he ought to be, and arrogates to himself gifts which he has not received, and aspires to the offices of others, resists God's ordinance and providence in those things which he has received entirely freely from God; for God by His providence has distributed and measured out to each one his own grace and function, which each one ought to fulfil well and faithfully and within which he ought to contain himself, and not be wise beyond it, lest he hear: Cobbler, beyond the sandal! For this is the will of God, verse 2, who has thus distributed and limited His grace, allotted task and assigned post to each one.
From this passage therefore it is clear how above, throughout this whole epistle, Paul has taken faith, namely for charity, grace and gifts following from faith. For these are metonymically called faith, because they are born from faith as from a root and matrix, as I said in chapter 3.
Verse 4: For as in one body we have many members
4. FOR AS IN ONE BODY WE HAVE MANY MEMBERS, BUT ALL THE MEMBERS HAVE NOT THE SAME ACT (action, function, operation).
Verse 5: So we being many are one body in Christ
5. SO WE BEING MANY (that is, all of us faithful, who are as it were various members, having various graces and functions) ARE ONE BODY IN CHRIST. — That is, we are one Church, whose inner bond is through faith and grace; the outer through the Sacraments instituted by Christ. For through these we are all knit and joined to Christ and in Christ; for the head of this body, that is the Church, is Christ.
Note: Just as in the body there are four things: first, the unity of the body; secondly, the diversity of members; thirdly, the diversity of offices in the individual members; fourthly, the fitness and endowment of each member for performing its own office; so exactly does the matter stand in every respect in the Church and in its individual members, namely the Christian faithful. The Apostle here proves that each of the faithful ought to be wise unto sobriety, that is, in that measure and gift of faith and grace which God has divided to him: that he ought not to be wise beyond, nor arrogate to himself a gift and office committed to another. He proves this from a similitude, namely from the members of the human body; for each of these is content with its own duties and functions, and does not intrude itself into the offices of another member, nor usurp them. In a similar way, then, the faithful ought to act, who are members of the same body of Christ, namely of the Church.
AND EACH ONE MEMBERS ONE OF ANOTHER. — Not as members of the body, but as fellow-members, "members," that is, we are fellow-members, as if to say: Therefore each member, that is each of the faithful, ought to work not for himself alone, but also for others, as is done in the natural body.
Verse 6: Having gifts differing according to the grace given to us
6. HAVING (that is, we have) THEN. — It is a Hebraism: for the Hebrews use the benoni, that is, the participle, in place of the indicative, which they lack. Whence it is clear that here a new sense begins, and that these words are not to be connected with the previous verse, as more recent commentators wish. Paul therefore here explains the various acts and functions of the members of the Church: for this the similitude drawn from the body requires, that, as in the body each member has its own grace and function or act, so in the Church each of the faithful has his own talent, that is office and charisma, and the function thereof. He says therefore:
HAVING THEN GIFTS DIFFERING ACCORDING TO THE GRACE THAT IS GIVEN TO US. — "Gifts," in Greek χαρίσματα, that is gifts, diverse talents. Behold, here Paul explains the measure of faith which God divides to various men in various ways, as will soon be clear, as if to say: Let each one contain himself within the measure of the gift, grace, talent, office committed to him, which he received by believing through faith; nor let him attempt other things — for example, to him to whom ministry has been given, let him minister, not teach: in turn, to him to whom doctrine has been given, let him teach, and not intrude himself into the ministry handed over to another.
Furthermore, the Apostle in what follows enumerates these charismata and gifts: and first indeed those proper ones, which concern Ecclesiastical matters and persons; for these above all must be rightly ordered. Then, verse 9, he reviews those gifts which are common to all Christians, even to laymen and the common people. He begins therefore with the Ecclesiastical ones, and says:
EITHER PROPHECY ACCORDING TO THE PROPORTION OF FAITH, OR MINISTRY IN MINISTERING. — Many take these generally of any prophecy and ministry: but more genuinely we shall say that the Apostle here enumerates the kinds of charismata and Ecclesiastical functions. For there are two: one is prophecy, the second is diaconia, or ministry. By the name of prophecy Paul understands doctrine, and those things which pertain to the office of teaching (as I shall show on I Corinthians XIV, at the beginning). By the name of diaconia he understands other external Ecclesiastical offices, which the Apostles renounced for themselves and laid upon the Deacons, saying in Acts VI, 2: "It is not just that we should leave the word of God, and serve tables. Consider therefore, brethren, seven men of good reputation from among you, full of the Holy Spirit and wisdom, whom we may set over this business: but we will give ourselves continually to prayer and to the ministry of the word." You see here that the Apostles divided the stable and perpetual Ecclesiastical functions into two, namely into doctrine, or the preaching of the word of God, which here is called prophecy, and into diaconia: and reserved the former, as the chief, to themselves; the latter they transferred to the Deacons.
Paul follows this Apostolic division in this place, and in I Timothy III, where he divides the ministers of the Church, who perform the Church's offices, only into Bishops and Deacons: understanding under Bishops the parish priests and presbyters, and under Deacons the other lower Orders. For Bishops are prophets, that is teachers of the Church; while Deacons and the others who serve them are their administrators. Prophecy therefore, that is doctrine, fell to the Apostles, bishops and Parish priests: but diaconia, or ministry, fell to the Deacons and their administrators.
Then the Apostle divides and partitions these two genera, namely prophecy and diaconia, into their species: namely, of prophets some are doctors, such as the Apostles and Bishops were; others are exhorters or pastors, such as Presbyters and Parish priests. In like manner, of Deacons and ministers, some are almoners, who distribute alms; others are presidents, who preside with solicitude; others are hospitallers, who care for the sick and the wretched. All these will become clearer from what follows.
Note: When the Apostle says, "according to the proportion of faith," faith here is not only the faith by which we believe the articles of faith, which faith is common to all the faithful; but rather faith here is the perfect understanding of divine matters and of the Scriptures, which is acquired not so much by human study, labor and industry, as by the operation and inspiration of God enlightening. Hence in I Corinthians XII, 9, this faith is placed among the gratuitously given graces: "To another, faith (is given) in the same Spirit." He says therefore: "We have prophecy," that is, the grace of expounding doctrine and Sacred Scripture, "according to the analogy," as the Greek has it, that is according to the proportion and measure "of faith," that is of the understanding and wisdom granted us by God. Therefore let each prophesy according to it, and let him not invent more things from his own genius: for from this have heresies arisen.
To this Anselm comes near, who explains thus: "according to the proportion of faith," that is, that we say or know nothing outside the rule of faith.
Secondly, Ambrose holds that the Apostle here prescribes to the prophet, that is to the doctor, that he should teach "according to the proportion of faith," that is, as the faith of the believers requires, or as the capacity and salvation of the hearers permits. For to this the Holy Spirit tempers His own gift, which He gives to the prophet, that is the doctor, and wishes it to be tempered in like manner by him.
Thirdly, faith might here be taken, as the Apostle took it in verse 3, for the gift and charisma of faith; so that the measure of faith would be the same as the proportion or analogy of faith. But because the Apostle here joins faith with prophecy, hence better, as I said, we shall take faith more specially for the gift of the understanding of Sacred Scripture and of the mysteries of faith, which at the beginning of the Church the Holy Spirit communicated to many.
Verse 7: Or ministry, in ministering
7. OR MINISTRY IN MINISTERING. — In Greek εἴτε διακονίαν ἐν τῇ διακονίᾳ, that is, or diaconia in diaconia; repeat "we have." In the first place διακονία signifies the office itself: in the second, the very function of the office, as if to say: We exercise diaconia, that is ministry, according to the grace or office of ministering. For no one in the Church ministers who has not for such ministry a title, grace, or order by which he is appointed to it.
Note: Some take diaconia to mean the episcopate, the presbyterate and the other orders. So Salmeron. But better, as I have already said, Toletus and others judge diaconia, or ministry, to be the second genus of Ecclesiastical function, opposed to prophecy, and to be occupied with the external matters and offices of charity, and these varied, as will be clear from what follows.
The Syriac and more recent commentators supply here: Let him who ministers be occupied in ministering; let him who teaches be occupied in teaching; let him who presides be occupied in solicitude, and so of the others. But Paul seems rather to be explaining here only by species what he had said in general: "We have gifts according to grace" and "differing" talents, by enumerating those gifts or charismata, namely ministry, which consists in ministering; the office of teacher, which consists in doctrine; exhortation, which consists in exhorting, etc. Yet from this he leaves it to be repeated and inferred consequently from verse 3 in each case, that each one should use his own grace and talent, and the gifts already mentioned, according to the measure given him by God, as I shall explain more particularly soon.
OR HE WHO TEACHES, IN DOCTRINE. — Here he gives two species of prophecy: the first is, "he who teaches," that is he who has the function of teaching, let him have it "in doctrine," ἐν διδασκαλίᾳ, that is according to the grace of doctrine and magisterium which he has received from God; for not all have the same skill in divine matters. The second is:
Verse 8: He that exhorteth, in exhorting
8. HE WHO EXHORTS, IN EXHORTING. — In Greek ἐν παρακλήσει, in exhortation; in the grace and talent of exhortation which he has received, let him do it, namely let him exhort. Under exhortation understand also consolation. The Apostle here calls "exhorter" him whom in I Corinthians XII, 28, he calls "doctor," and in Ephesians IV, 11, he calls "pastor;" namely him who by office joins doctrine with exhortation, admonition, and even with the administration of the Sacraments, as the Parish priests now do. From these sentences of the Apostle infer tacitly, as if to say: Let each one therefore, both he who teaches and he who exhorts, teach and exhort, and use his own talent, according to the grace and measure granted him by God.
HE WHO GIVES, IN SIMPLICITY. — Having enumerated the species and functions of prophecy, he here enumerates the functions of diaconia, or ministry, and these three, with their charismata or different donations. The first is, "he who gives," as if to say: He who has the function and office of distributing alms, as the deacons of old had it, Acts VI, 5, has it "in simplicity," that is, according to the grace of simplicity. For this grace the Holy Spirit is wont to give together with such an office, as if to say: Let therefore every almoner see to it that he gives and distributes alms according to this simplicity.
It is asked, what is this "simplicity"?
First, Origen explains thus: He who gives, let him give in simplicity, that is, not from vainglory. For he is double-minded who by external act seems to give alms to another, while by his internal act he seeks his own advantage, namely praise.
Secondly, Chrysostom and Theodoret: "Simplicity," they say, is liberality. For this gives simply with hand outstretched, while the miser draws back his hand, and grudgingly and slowly disburses some small thing.
Thirdly, Theodoret: "He who gives," he says, let him give "in simplicity," that is simply, freely and resolutely; namely, that he should not consider whether what he has will suffice for himself, or whether it will be necessary for future contingencies; but trust in God, that He will provide both for him and for all future things.
Fourthly, other more recent commentators: "In simplicity, he gives," who does not expect to be repaid; for many give to this end, that they may receive greater things, but these do not give simply, nor do they so much give as sell their gifts. On which matter Seneca beautifully says, in book I On Benefits, chap. 1: "Let us give benefits, not lend them at interest. He is worthy to be deceived, who thought of receiving when he gave."
Fifthly, others: "In simplicity, he gives," who so sincerely and purely gives, that he does not wish to allure him to whom he gives to sin or any other base thing.
Sixthly and best, Anselm: "Simplicity here is opposed to duplicity, that is to deceit, fraud, hypocrisy, acceptance of persons, and likewise to curiosity. Simple therefore is he who does not intend anything other than what ought to be intended: double, however, is he who intends or looks to something other than he ought." Simple therefore in giving alms is he who does not consider whether he to whom he gives is a friend, a familiar, convenient, useful, or likely to be grateful, but whether he is in need. Again, he who does not too curiously inquire whether the one to whom he gives alms is good or perverse or feigning (on which matter S. Chrysostom treats beautifully here, in moral homily 21); but, as Ambrose says, pours himself out with a pure affection upon all the needy, and openly, yet prudently, disburses his own things and those committed to him: for such are most fit for the function of almoner, and therefore are to be chosen. Of this simplicity of almsgiving I shall again speak on II Corinthians VIII, 2.
HE WHO PRESIDES, WITH SOLICITUDE. — That is, he who has the function in the Church of presiding, let him have it according to the grace of solicitude, in Greek σπουδῆς, that is of zeal, that he may apply himself wholly to it seriously and watchfully, and of diligence, that he may be sedulous and swift in execution: for those who have received this grace are the most fit and are to be chosen to preside.
Note: By "president" here the Apostle does not so much understand the Pastor and Prelate who presides in spiritual matters (for this person, as I said a little before, he understood under the name of exhorter), as the prefect who presides over temporal and external matters, and who administers the Ecclesiastical polity, such as were the Archdeacons, who presided over the other Deacons, the almoners and hospitallers. For this president the Apostle numbers among the Deacons, who are occupied in ministering; and this presidency is the second species of diaconia, which Paul in I Corinthians chap. XII, verse 28, calls "government." Now from the fact that the Apostle says, "he who presides, with solicitude," he leaves it to be tacitly inferred, as if to say: Therefore he who presides should contain himself in the grace of solicitude, and in this should preside, that he may carry the due care and solicitude for those who have been committed to him.
HE WHO SHOWS MERCY, WITH CHEERFULNESS. — This is the third species of diaconia, pertaining especially to hospitallers and formerly to those widows, of whom the Apostle speaks, I Timothy V, 9. As if to say: Those who exercise the function of mercy in the Church in treating and caring for the poor and the sick (for the proper subject here is the sick and the wretched), let them do it according to the gift of cheerfulness; which consists in three things: first, in the joy of the soul, that they may overcome the tedium and nausea of the ulcerous and the diseased; secondly, in alacrity of countenance, that through it they may console and lift up the sick, who labor under sickness and grief; thirdly, in affability of words, by which they may not drive away the sick, who are needy in many things and asking many things from them, but allure them, that they may faithfully implore their help and work. Now from the fact that Paul says: "He who shows mercy, with cheerfulness," he leaves it to be tacitly inferred, as if to say: Therefore when you show mercy, use the gift of "cheerfulness," which God has given you with the office, that you may show yourself cheerful to the wretched and the sick.
Note: Cheerfulness is most especially required in mercy; for, as Chrysostom says, to men nothing seems so base and unbecoming as to be wretched, to be in need, and to receive from others the things they need; and therefore, unless by excellent cheerfulness you remove that suspicion, and show that you receive a benefit from the wretched rather than give one, you will more dishearten the receiver than restore him. Hence the same Chrysostom, hom. 33 to the People: "True almsgiving is to give in such a way that you rejoice to give, thinking that you receive more than you give. For we benefit not so much the poor as ourselves, receiving more than giving." For the poor man represents Christ, and to Christ is given whatever is bestowed on the poor: but Christ does not allow Himself to be outdone in liberality, but gives more than He receives. With reason therefore the Wise Man, Ecclesiasticus XXXV, 11: "In every gift, make your countenance cheerful, and in exultation sanctify your tithes." And Nazianzen: "The grace of beneficence is doubled by promptness."
Yet cheerfulness is also most useful elsewhere, and so is itself like a flower adorning, and like honey sweetening, and perfecting all other virtues. Hence B. Prosper, Sentence 412: "When you do good, do it cheerfully. For if you do it sadly, it is rather done to you than by you." Hence S. Augustine, in book On the Perfection of Justice, says that the just man sins if in beneficence tedium creeps upon him by which the cheerfulness is darkened, in which God loves the giver.
Up to this point the Apostle has reviewed the donations or Ecclesiastical charismata, and has prescribed the manner of using them: yet in such a way that the laity may and ought to adapt and accommodate the same manner to themselves and to their offices in many matters. Henceforth, therefore, the Apostle reviews the charismata and offices of virtues common to all Christians and to laymen. Therefore he prescribes love to them, and teaches what sort of love it ought to be, and what acts of virtues it ought to exercise and command. For love is the charioteer and queen of all virtues, especially if it has humility joined to it; then it embraces almost all the offices of a Christian man, and rightly orders and disposes them according to the will and good pleasure of God. And so he says:
Verse 9: Let love be without dissimulation
9. LOVE (namely, let it be) WITHOUT DISSIMULATION, — that is, let it be sincere and candid, and, as the Greek has it, ἀνυπόκριτος, that is, let it not be hypocritical and feigned, so that, as S. John says, epistle I, chap. III, verse 18: "Let us not love in word, nor in tongue, but in deed and in truth."
Up to this point Paul has shown what is the will of God in those who have a function in the Church; now he shows the same thing in all Christians.
Whence concerning the love of Christians he teaches: first, that it ought to be sincere. Secondly, that through it we ought to love our neighbor, yet so that we hold his evils and sins in hatred, and embrace his virtues. Thirdly, he requires that this love be fraternal, that as brothers born of one father Christ, we love one another. Fourthly, that the same be without pride and arrogance, namely that we go before one another in honor. Fifthly, that the same be swift and sedulous, not sluggish. Sixthly, that the same be ardent and fervent. Seventhly, that it serve not itself and its own conveniences and glory, but God, as is clear in verse 11: so Salmeron. Therefore concerning this love there follows:
HATING (ἀποστυγοῦντες, abhorring) EVIL: (this is not sufficient, but it is required that they be) CLEAVING (in Greek κολλώμενοι, that is glued together) TO THAT WHICH IS GOOD, — and to virtue, supply "let us be": so S. Chrysostom and Origen.
Note first, all the following participles up to the end of the chapter must, after the Hebrew manner, be expounded by an imperative or optative, in this way: "hating," that is let us hate, or hate ye, "evil; cleaving," that is let us cleave "to the good; loving," that is let us love; "in honor going before one another," that is let us go before; "fervent in spirit," that is let us be fervent; "serving the Lord," that is let us serve, or serve ye: and so of the others. Furthermore, the Apostle continually uses these participles here in order to show that all these offices of virtues, which through these participles he reviews up to the end of the chapter, depend on love, and are joined to it, and are commanded by it, and so are as it were epithets and emblems of love. He does similarly in I Corinthians chap. XIII, saying: "Charity is patient, is kind," etc. For although the following gnomes or short and illustrious sentences are about various and disparate offices of virtues, which after the Hebrew manner the Apostle is wont to propound mixed, without order and connection; yet here, as I have said, all can be referred to love in some way, and all these participles indicate this.
Note secondly the word "hating": for in a Christian an immense hatred of sin is required, because this hatred perfects the contrary virtue, and as much as hatred of evil grows, so much also grows love of the good. For there are those who love virtue, for example temperance; but because they do not detest drunkenness, for this reason they do not embrace temperance from the heart, seriously and resolutely.
Verse 10: Loving one another with the charity of brotherhood
10. WITH THE CHARITY OF BROTHERHOOD (in Greek φιλαδελφίᾳ, that is, with fraternal charity, by which brothers love one another; with the same we Christians too, as sons of God in Christ, and as brothers to one another) LOVING ONE ANOTHER, — that is let us love, and so much the more as spiritual brotherhood is more perfect than carnal, says S. Ambrose, serm. 9, and S. Augustine, serm. 27 On the Words of the Apostle.
Note first: Some wrongly read here: "The charity of brotherhood loving one another," as if the Apostle wished charity itself to be loved: for the word "one another," and more clearly the Greek εἰς ἀλλήλους, clearly signify that the Apostle is not speaking of love of charity itself, but of love of brothers.
Secondly, he here calls "brothers" not just any neighbors, even if they are Gentiles and Pagans, but Christians only. For these of old called one another brothers, and loved one another as brothers, as those who had been begotten of the same mother, the Church, and the same father, Christ. For these, as more closely joined to us and to Christ, we are bound to love more than infidels and Pagans by the new precept of love, of which in John XIII, 34, Christ says: "A new commandment I give you, that you love one another, as I have loved you:" concerning which I have treated more fully in that place.
Thirdly, φιλαδελφία is composed of φίλος, that is friend, and ἀδελφός, that is brother: this composition signifies an intense charity, says Theodoret, namely by which we love one another not only as friends, but even as most closely joined brothers, as if to say: Let the friendship among you, O faithful, not be of any common sort, but the highest, most intimate and most close, such as becomes most loving brothers.
Fourthly, for "loving," the Greek is φιλόστοργοι: στοργή signifies the natural and immense affection of piety by which parents are borne toward their children, brothers, kinsmen; and that permanently. For this is φιλόστοργοι, that is, not lovers in act, but lovers by disposition, namely affectionate and steadfast, as if by habit; for it is a noun, not a participle. Hence Tertullian, in book V Against Marcion, chap. XIV, reads: "Affectionate one to another with the love of brotherhood." Paul therefore wishes that Christians may feel and exercise toward one another such sweet affections as parents bear toward their children, and the reverse: and that from such affection they may help and succor all. Hence Tertullian, book I Against Marcion, Primasius, Sedulius, Haymo, the Commentary of Ambrose and Jerome read for "loving," "kind."
OUTDOING ONE ANOTHER IN HONOR. — One another, namely, equals, and even unequals, when charity demands this, or when it is necessary, and to remove aversion between a Superior and a subject: or certainly when surpassing humility impels the superior to do this. For this is a heroic act of humility, which is not ordinarily of precept, but of counsel. For the Apostle does not say, Rendering due honor, but, "Outdoing one another in honor," so that Christians, after the example of Christ, the greater they are, the more they may abase themselves and submit to others, deferring to them the first place in walking, at table, in assembly, and in all other things. That this may be done outwardly, it is necessary inwardly to do what the Apostle enjoins, Philip. II, 3, saying: "Esteeming each other to be superiors." On this matter much more is to be said there.
Verse 11: In carefulness not slothful; in spirit fervent; serving the Lord
11. NOT SLOTHFUL IN CAREFULNESS. — As if to say: Let us anticipate one another not only in honor, but also in favor, service, help, and care, and that not slothfully, but diligently. For in Greek it is σπουδῇ, that is, with zeal, with diligence, namely in helping one another, lest you be slothful. Against this they sin who lend aid, but late, when the neighbor is either delivered from his evil, or has despaired so that he can no longer be helped.
FERVENT IN SPIRIT. — "In spirit," that is, in charity, or in the Holy Spirit, as in fire; or more simply, "in spirit," that is, by a certain impulse of a kindled soul, let us be fervent in doing our duty: for thus shall we be not slothful in carefulness.
Note: The Apostle is speaking of fervor, not only toward doing good to a neighbor, but for every duty of virtue. For this is His indefinite and general statement: and love or charity (on which all these things in some manner depend) dictates and commands that we be fervent not only in the offices of charity, but also in all the offices of the other virtues.
This fervor consists in three things, says S. Basil in his Shorter Rules, response 259: First, that in the matter we are doing, the whole intention of the soul be present; secondly, that there be an inexpressible desire of doing well; thirdly, that assiduity and continuance be added, by which we refuse no office of charity toward our neighbor, nor of virtue. For just as a pot that is boiling does not rest, but always bubbles, raises itself on high, and shoots upward fiery bubbles and vapors: so charity ought not, nor can be, idle, but it must continually advance and leap toward greater things, and through sincere intention, prayer, desires and groans, as if vapors, ascend to God. This fervor is opposed to lukewarmness, of which Apocalypse III, 15 speaks.
S. Bernard, sermon 6 On the Ascension, describes the man fervent in spirit thus: "You may notice in nearly all religious congregations men filled with consolation, abounding in joy, cheerful, always glad, fervent in spirit, meditating day and night on the law of the Lord, frequently looking up to heaven, and lifting up pure hands in prayer, careful observers of conscience and devoted followers of good works; to whom amiable discipline, the labor of their hands delightful, and indeed the whole austerity of this manner of life seems a refreshment."
Then, that from this as it were image of the fervent man the lukewarm man may be recognized, he subjoins a description of the lukewarm in this manner: "On the contrary indeed, one may find men, first, fainthearted and remiss; second, failing under their burden; third, in need of rod and spurs; fourth, whose joy is feeble and whose sadness is fainthearted; fifth, whose compunction is brief and rare; sixth, whose thought is animal; seventh, whose conversation is lukewarm; eighth, whose obedience is without devotion; ninth, whose speech is without circumspection; tenth, whose prayer is without intention of heart; eleventh, whose reading is without edification (of self); twelfth, whom scarcely the fear of hell restrains; thirteenth, whom scarcely shame holds back; fourteenth, whom scarcely reason restrains; fifteenth, whom scarcely discipline curbs."
Hear Rufinus, book III on the Lives of the Fathers, no. 204: "A certain elder said: Just as flies do not approach a heated pot, but if it is lukewarm, they settle on it and breed worms: so the demons flee from a monk kindled with the fire of divine love; but the lukewarm one they mock and pursue."
SERVING THE LORD. — Ambrose and Erasmus read, καιρῷ, that is, serving the time, as if to say: Let your fervor not be importunate, but modestly and honestly in its own time advance faith and charity. Thus Pittacus said: γίνωσκε καιρόν, know the time, that is, look out for and seize the opportunity of the time. Do not undertake anything at an importunate and incongruous time.
Others explain it thus, "serving the time," as if to say: The Apostle: Do not abuse so great and so glorious an opportunity of the saving time. For behold, now is the acceptable time, behold, now is the day of salvation, in which Christ, coming into the world and into flesh, brought us grace and salvation from heaven; therefore use this time carefully — you have it now, but a little later you will not have it. Therefore he serves the time who uses the occasion of time for good, and who diligently takes care lest, occupying himself with trifles or matters of little profit, he make loss of the time granted to serve God and to acquire gains and rewards in heaven. But the Syriac, the Latin, and the Greek everywhere read not καιρῷ, but Κυρίῳ, that is, the Lord, namely Christ, not serving idols — that is, serve Him, even in persecutions, by the new Christian life, and therefore be fervent in spirit, as preceded.
Verse 12: Rejoicing in hope; patient in tribulation; instant in prayer
12. REJOICING IN HOPE. — The expectation and hope of so great goods which God has prepared for His faithful in heaven begets immense joy, so that even in any grievous tribulation a Christian rejoices and exults. So that holy abbot Apollo in Palladius, in the Lausiac History, chapter LII, when he saw any of his men sad and fainthearted, in order to lift him up to joy and gladness: "Let the worldly be sad," he said, "let the Jews be sad, let sinners be sad, who have no other hope: but we, who have been counted worthy of so great a hope of heavenly glory, how shall we not perpetually rejoice?" Hence Philo calls hope "joy before joy."
Thus S. Athanasius writes of S. Antony, that he was always cheerful, both in adversity and in prosperity, and showed forth the joy of his mind, and was recognized by strangers from it. "For if anyone, not knowing him, desired to see him amid a multitude of monks, with no one pointing him out, passing over the others, he would run to Antony, and recognize the purity of his soul from his countenance, and through the mirror of his body he would behold the grace of the holy mind: for always wearing a cheerful face, he plainly showed that he was thinking of heavenly things."
PATIENT IN TRIBULATION. — Tertullian, book V Against Marcion, chapter 14, reads, sustaining pressure.
INSTANT IN PRAYER. — Προσευχῇ προσκαρτεροῦντες, that is, persevering assiduously in prayer, or instant with constancy; for προσκαρτερεῖν is to insist with patience and a certain perseverance, to apply oneself, to be much and constant at any thing. Which is said in I Thessal. v, 17: "Pray without ceasing." And Luke XVIII, 1: "That we ought always to pray."
Verse 13: Communicating to the necessities of the saints; pursuing hospitality
13. COMMUNICATING TO THE NECESSITIES OF THE SAINTS. — Ambrose, instead of χρείαις, that is, necessities, reads μνείαις, that is, memories. Thus also S. Hilary reads, in his book Against Constantius, at the end: "The Apostle commands us to communicate in the memorials of the Saints; you (O Constantius) have chosen to condemn them." Thus also Origen reads (and from him the Commentary ascribed to Jerome) and gives a double sense: First, "communicate in the memories of the Saints," that is, profit from the remembrance of the Saints. Secondly, remember the Saints in solemn collects; just as the Church remembers them in the Canon of the Mass, when it says: "Communicating with and venerating the memory in the first place of the glorious and ever-Virgin Mary, of the holy Apostles Peter, Paul," etc. From this explanation of Origen let the Innovators learn the ancient rite and custom in the Church of invoking and commemorating the Saints in the public prayers of the Church.
But everywhere the Greek, Latin, Syriac, and the Greek and Latin interpreters, as Francis Lucas testifies, read χρείαις, which S. Jerome translates, uses; Our (Vulgate), necessities, that is, communicate to the want of the Saints, that is, of Christians. "Saints, brethren, disciples" was once the title of Christians; because they themselves were dedicated to God, and made saints through baptism. S. Chrysostom presses the word "communicating," that is, share, as if to say: Make your goods common with the Saints, that you may have common gain with them, and be partakers of their merits, patience and crown.
PURSUING HOSPITALITY. — διώκοντες, that is, pursuing — namely, the unwilling and those refusing — by compelling them to lodging, as Abraham did. About the hospitality of Christians I will say more at Hebr. XIII, 2.
Verse 14: Bless them that persecute you; bless, and curse not
14. BLESS THEM THAT PERSECUTE YOU, — that is, pray well, and pray for them. Erasmus therefore wrongly translates: "Speak well of those who persecute you." This is not a precept, as Calvin will have it (who adds that scarcely anyone fulfills this precept: namely, because he teaches that God Himself commands impossible things to man, which not even a tyrant would do); but it is of counsel, as also the preceding: "Instant in prayer; outdoing one another in honor; rejoicing in hope; fervent in spirit."
AND CURSE NOT. — In Greek μὴ καταράσθε, that is, do not execrate; and, as the Syriac has it, do not imprecate evils upon them, namely from a mind desirous of vengeance: for from zeal for justice the Saints have at times imprecated evils upon the impious, such as Elisha, Job, and Paul himself, Acts xxv, 3.
Verse 15: Rejoice with them that rejoice; weep with them that weep
15. TO REJOICE (so it is to be read with the Roman and Greek Bibles, not rejoice ye. "To rejoice," namely, it behooves; or rather the infinitive χαίρειν, that is, to rejoice, is put in the Attic manner for the imperative χαίρετε, that is, rejoice ye) WITH THEM THAT REJOICE. — As if to say: Let there be such sympathy among you, Christians, that the goods or evils of brethren may touch you as much as them. Thus S. Basil, homily on Julitta the Martyr: "We must weep with those that weep; for you, as soon as you see a brother washing himself with tears for the penance for the things he has done, mourn with him and condole: for thus it will come about that by the evils of others you correct your own. Such was he who said: Faintness, or failing, of mind seized me for sinners who forsake Thy law. Weep therefore over sin. Sin is the sickness of the soul, sin is the death of the soul which is otherwise immortal, sin is worthy of grief and inconsolable lamentation. Paul wept for the enemies of the Cross of Christ. And Jeremiah wept for the destruction of the perishing people, who, since the tears flowing of themselves were not sufficient for the magnitude of his grief, eagerly desired that a fountain of tears be poured into him, and the last lodging-place of the wilderness, saying: And I will sit, and bewail this people many days, those who perish. Truly such grief and tears the saying of the Apostle proclaims, and declares them blessed."
Wisely also S. Bernard, sermon On Blessed Magdalene: "Truly, the breasts of the spouse are better than this wine. What, you say, are these? Let Paul the Apostle come forward into the midst, and assign to us the breasts flowing with happy milk. Rejoice, he says, with them that rejoice, weep with them that weep. O in how brief a little sermon he depicted the very emblem of all religion! With how elegant a clause he proposed piety, established equity, removed envy! With these breasts mother Church suckles those advancing, nourishes the perfect. Rejoice with them that rejoice. Let secular applause depart from here, let madness, and worldly joy depart: for there is no rejoicing for the impious, says the Lord."
And soon after: "For the mind, purely and closely cleansed from the sprinkling of this world, and fixing the whole affection of its desire upon the keenness of divine contemplation, rejoicing rejoices in the Lord, and the soul exults in God its Savior. Such a soul disdains threats, knows no fear, eludes false hope, and being free of all scandals, in peace falls asleep in self-same and rests." Then he adds: "The second is, to weep with them that weep. Does the Apostle command to weep over the loss of things, the deaths of children, the instance of diseases? etc. By no means. For those who weep in such a way are themselves to be wept over. For religious sadness mourns either another's sin or its own. This is the breast of compassion, the former was that of congratulation." And shortly after: "The lover of innocence, the friend of peace, the food of patience, suffering with sufferers, and rejoicing with those rejoicing, attains the goal of perfection, his course being completed." Therefore to rejoice with and to grieve with are signs of perfection, indeed acts of perfect virtue.
Verse 16: Being of one mind one toward another
16. BEING OF ONE MIND ONE TOWARD ANOTHER (in Greek εἰς ἀλλήλους, that is, toward one another), — namely, that there be not, says Anselm, schisms among you, but that you mutually consent in mind and affection. Whence Maldonatus in his Notes from a manuscript thus explains it: "Have the same mind, or savor one toward another," that is, mutually consent, both in judgment and in will, or let one savor the things which the other savors, nor wish to seem to know more than the rest, so as proudly to prefer his own judgment and opinion to the judgment and opinion of the rest. This sense is sufficiently probable and apposite.
Secondly, "mind the same thing one toward another," that is, says Chrysostom, think equal things of one another. And Ambrose: Consider concerning yourself what you do concerning others, namely, that you are a man, and a Christian as much as your neighbor; and consequently do not exalt yourself, though you be richer and more honored than another. Whence the Syriac translates: what you think of yourselves, think of your brethren.
Thirdly and best, Origen explains it thus, as if to say: Be of the same mind among yourselves, and toward yourselves mutually affected, so that whatever each one savors and minds for himself — that is, seeks, loves, cares for, wills (for this is the Greek φρονοῦντες) — let him savor this for another, that is, seek and will; what he does not savor for himself, that is, would not will for himself, let this neither savor for the other, that is, will it for him.
It might also be explained thus: "Being of the same mind one toward another," as if to say: Mind the same thing one toward another, that if your neighbor rejoice, you may feel his joy and rejoice with him; if he weep, you may weep with him: so that τὸ αὐτὸ φρονεῖσθε is the same as συμφρονεῖσθε, or τὴν αὐτὴν φρένα ἔχετε, that is, have the same mind, the same feeling; consent in mind, soul, and feeling. But then Paul would say the same thing he said in the preceding verse: "Rejoice with them that rejoice, weep with them that weep." Whence the former, which I gave, is more apt; especially because the Apostle, when he wishes only to signify and commend sameness of feeling and consent of affection, customarily says only τὸ αὐτὸ φρονεῖτε, mind the same, or τὸ ἓν φρονοῦντες, of one and the same mind; but here he adds τὸ εἰς ἀλλήλους, that is, mind the same thing toward one another, which signifies not only consent, but also benevolence and beneficence, either in act, or in will, desire, and solicitude.
Note: The Apostle from verse 9 to 12 described what the love of Christians ought to be like; from verse 12 onward to here he describes by what means this love is helped, excited, and strengthened — namely, first, by hope of heavenly glory; second, by patience in tribulations; third, by instance in prayer; fourth, by good works of almsgiving, hospitality, and love of enemies; fifth, and chiefly, by sympathy, and the same sense and consent, namely that someone makes the sorrows, goods and evils of his neighbor his own, and feels them in himself, as if having one soul with him; and this is what is said of the first Christians in Acts IV, 32: "The multitude of believers had one heart and one soul."
NOT MINDING HIGH THINGS (not loftily, of yourselves), that you may wish to be eminent above others, that you may be ambitious of honors. Note: The first virtue of Christians, well-pleasing to God, is charity, of which the Apostle has so far been treating. The second is humility, which ought to be the companion and helper of charity. Therefore the Apostle teaches here that charity ought to be humble, and to associate humility with itself, that it may be ambidextrous.
Therefore he enumerates nine acts of humility, or of humble charity: the first, not to mind high things; the second, to delight in lowly things and lowly persons; the third, not to be prudent in one's own conceits; the fourth, to render to no man evil for evil; the fifth, to provide good things in the sight of men; the sixth, to cultivate peace with men; the seventh, not to avenge oneself; the eighth, to give place to wrath; the ninth, to do good to enemies.
In a nearly similar way Cassian, in book IV of the Institutes of Renunciation, chapter 39, enumerates other but similar marks and offices of humility: "Humility is proved by these signs: first, if a man have all his self-wills mortified within himself; second, if he conceal nothing of his own from the elder, not only of his actions but even of his thoughts; third, if he commit nothing to his own discretion but everything to the elder's judgment, and willingly listen to his admonitions, thirsting for them; fourth, if he keep in all things obedience, gentleness, and constancy of patience; fifth, if he not only inflict injury on no one, but not even grieve or be saddened by an injury inflicted on himself by another; sixth, if he do nothing, presume nothing, which the common rule or the examples of his elders do not exhort; seventh, if he be content with every meanness, and judge himself unworthy of all things presented to him, like a bad workman; eighth, if he pronounce himself inferior to all, not by surface of lips, but believe it with the deepest affection of the heart; ninth, if he restrain his tongue, or be not clamorous in voice; tenth, if he be not easy and prompt in laughter."
But Anselm, book On Similitudes, chapter 10, places humility in self-contempt, of which he describes seven degrees thus: "the first is to recognize oneself to be contemptible; the second, to grieve over this; the third, to confess it; the fourth, to persuade others of it in suitable place and time; the fifth, to endure patiently when this is said by others; the sixth, to bear with equanimity to be treated contemptibly; the seventh, to find this very thing pleasing, to desire and love it."
From the contraries of these it is easy to assign the degrees of pride, and they must be assigned in retrograde order: for as good proceeds by building up, so evil by tearing down; but that which is last in construction is first in destruction: e.g., in building a house one proceeds from foundation to roof; in destroying it, from roof to foundation.
The first degree, then, of pride is to flee and hate one's own self-contempt, which is opposed to the last degree of humility. The second is to bear with indignation one's own self-contempt, which is opposed to the sixth degree of humility: and so on going backward. See also the twelve degrees of humility in S. Benedict's Rule, chapter 7, which are also recounted in S. Bernard, Appendix II, p. 103.
Hear also Climacus, degree 25, whose title is: On the highest humility, victrix over all the passions; where first he describes humility from various sentences of the Fathers thus: One said humility was the most intent forgetfulness of one's right deeds. Another, to think oneself the lowest of all and more obnoxious to sin. Another, to acknowledge one's own weakness. Another, in irritations to anticipate one's neighbor and first to dissolve anger. Another, the recognition of God's grace and mercy. Another again, the sense of a contrite mind and the renunciation of one's own will. But I say it is the ineffable treasure of the riches of God.
Secondly, he assigns its properties thus. The first and chief is the most pleasant and joyful enduring of ignominy, which the soul, in order to settle and consume its diseases and greatest sins, awaits and embraces with upturned hands. Second, it is the victory over all anger. Third, that no one ever believes in his own goods unfaithfully, but constantly desires to learn more. Fourth, wherever hypocrisy appears, or detraction, or some other hidden serpent, humility immediately draws it out from the caves of the heart into the light and kills it. Finally, the humble man does not rebuke, does not judge, does not desire to rule, is meek, placid, easily moved to compunction, merciful, but above all things tranquil, serene, obedient, patient of the bridle, cheerful, vigilant, untiring, blessed in placid tranquillity of soul.
Thirdly, he recounts the benefits, merits, and rewards of humility thus. First, humility is divine protection, from which it comes about that we do not see our own right deeds. Second, humility is the abyss of meanness, inviolable to all thieves. Third, humility is a tower of strength from the face of the enemy. Fourth, the humble soul is a valley placed between the middle of mountains, ever remaining without arrogance and immovable, the parent of all crops. Fifth, if you see anyone who within a few years has acquired the highest tranquillity, do not suppose he has entered upon any other than this blessed and swift way. Seriously, pride made demons out of angels, humility makes angels out of demons.
Fourthly, he suggests these means of acquiring humility: first, to consider one's past sins; second, to weigh the passion and humiliation of Christ; third, to gaze at one's own daily defects, temptations, illnesses, and lapses.
Fifthly, he enumerates these acts and as it were degrees of humility promiscuously. First, to subject one's own will to another; for he who is of humble mind detests his own will as deceitful, and promptly obeys the will of God and of God's vicars, and commits himself to the most faithful care of God, who instructed and directed Balaam through an ass. Second, to put away one's own self-confidence and loquacity. Third, to cultivate poverty and to live the life of beggars. Fourth, to conceal one's nobility, wisdom, virtues, and gifts. Fifth, as the height of pride is to feign virtues which are not present, so the height of humility is to fabricate faults which are not present. Sixth, constantly to flee honors and praises: all these are nearly verbatim from Blessed Climacus. Thus S. Hilarion, as S. Jerome testifies, fleeing honor and importunity, desired silence and an ignoble life; and therefore wandering, he always fled hither and thither: yet everywhere his sanctity was made manifest through miracles and through demoniacs.
BUT CONSENTING TO THE HUMBLE. — As if to say: Accommodating yourselves to men of humble condition (so the Syriac and Chrysostom), condescending and complying with them; but not despising them. In Greek τοῖς ταπεινοῖς συναπαγόμενοι, as if to say: Carried away and led off together with the humble by a certain impulse, that is, with the lowly and abject: for these are ταπεινοί. Whence Tertullian, book V Against Marcion, chapter 14, reads, agreeing with the humble.
Secondly, the τὸ ταπεινοῖς can be neuter, and opposed to "high things," as if to say: Aim at lowly things, not high things; flee honors, flee the company of the rich and noble; aim at abjection, poverty, and the company of plebeians and the poor.
BE NOT WISE IN YOUR OWN CONCEITS. — First, Origen explains it thus: Do not think yourselves to be prudent.
Secondly, Ambrose, as if to say: Turn your prudence not only to your own uses, but also to the uses of others.
Third, S. Basil in his Shorter Rules, response 260: as if to say, Do not lean on human prudence, but on divine.
Fourth, and clearly S. Chrysostom and Theodoret: as if to say, Do not think your own counsels sufficient for you, as if you did not need the counsel of others, lest you attribute too much to your own prudence and judgment.
IN YOUR OWN CONCEITS, — that is, in your own opinion, in your own eyes.
Verse 17: To no man rendering evil for evil
17. PROVIDING GOOD THINGS NOT ONLY BEFORE GOD, BUT ALSO BEFORE ALL MEN. — Paul looks back to Prov. III, 4, according to the Septuagint, which has thus: Προνοοῦ καλὰ ἐνώπιον Κυρίου καὶ ἀνθρώπων. "Provide good things before the Lord and before men:" although here in Paul's Greek the "before the Lord" has dropped out, as if to say: So live honestly, kindly, justly, and holily, that your life and conversation may be approved as good and amiable not only by God, but also by men, and may not justly be blamed by anyone, but rather shine forth and gleam as an example of virtue to others. "To God," says S. Bernard, "we owe a conscience, to our neighbor a reputation."
Secondly, the Greeks join this with what preceded: "Rendering to no man evil for evil," as if to say: Paul: It is not enough for you not to render evil for evil, but it is necessary that you also provide good things, that is, do good to all, even to enemies. But this sense is more strict. S. Bernard succulently says, in the sermon On the Threefold Judgment: "In three ways we provide good things in the sight of men, namely by habit, action, speech. By habit, that it be not notable; by action, that it be not reprehensible; by speech, that it be not contemptible. Also in three ways before God: by thought, affection, and intention. For thought ought also to be holy; whence it is written: A holy thought shall preserve thee; and a pure affection, and a right intention."
NOT DEFENDING YOURSELVES, DEARLY BELOVED. — For "defending," the Greek has ἐκδικοῦντες, that is, avenging. So S. Chrysostom; whence Tertullian also reads: "Not avenging yourselves." So also the Syriac and others. So also elsewhere our (Latin) translator renders it, as in Judith I, 12, and chap. II, 1. So Nonius Marcellus from Ennius: "Save the citizens, defend (that is, avenge, take vengeance on) the enemies." And Virgil: "Defend the flock from the solstice." And Tertullian, book II Against Marcion, for what we have: "Vengeance is mine, and I will repay," reads: "Mine is the defense, and I will defend;" and Gellius, book I, chap. 9: "To defend is the same as to drive away." Whence it is clear that in the time of our (Latin) translator "to defend" was used for to avenge. Hence S. Cyprian, in his book On Patience: "Let us not, as servants, hasten to be defended before the Lord with irreligious haste;" to be defended, that is, to be avenged.
Paul, therefore, here forbids vengeance and the appetite for vengeance: against which Tertullian assigns excellent lessons and remedies, in his book On Patience, chapters 9 and 10.
"This lust for vengeance attends to a business either of glory or of malice: but glory is everywhere vain; and malice is odious to the Lord, in this place above all: because it doubles the evil that has been once done. For what is the difference between the one provoking and the one provoked, except that the former is caught in the offense first, the latter afterward? Each is guilty of the offended Lord, who prohibits and condemns every evil, and who commands that evil should not be repaid with evil. What honor shall we offer to the Lord, if we arrogate to ourselves the right of defense (that is, of vengeance)? What do we believe Him to be a judge, if not also an avenger? This He promises us, saying: Vengeance is Mine, and I will avenge; that is, patience is for Me, and I will reward patience. He who avenges himself takes away the honor of the sole Judge, that is, of God. After vengeance follow penitence, flight, and guilt, so that we are punished in the same manner. Nothing taken up by impatience knows how to be carried through without violent impulse: whatever is done with impulse either gives offense, or collapses, or rushes headlong away. If you are defended (avenged) lightly, you will rage; if more abundantly, you will be burdened. What have I to do with vengeance, whose measure I cannot govern through the impatience of grief? If I shall lie upon patience, I shall not grieve; if I shall not grieve, I shall not desire to avenge."
BUT GIVE PLACE TO WRATH, — supply, the divine, says Chrysostom, Theodoret, Oecumenius and S. Augustine on Psalm 78, as if to say: Leave to God the vengeance of your injury. The following words somewhat favor this exposition.
Secondly, Ambrose and Anselm: "Give place to wrath," that is, flee, be silent, yield to the angry and raging man; and, as Origen says, patiently bear with the angry brother, contradicting nothing or doing nothing: for thus his anger will subside, and you will restore him as well as yourself to himself and to peace.
Thirdly and more perfectly, S. Basil in his Shorter Rules, response 244, and from him Toletus, explain it thus: "Give place to wrath," namely, until anger is fulfilled and so ceases, so that if the angry man strikes your right cheek, you offer him also the left rather than avenge yourself. "Give place to wrath," says Basil, "as to a torrent, which by its most rapid impulse rolls down whatever it meets." Thus nearly says S. Athanasius to Antiochus, Question 129: "Give place to wrath" — that is, give pardon to wrath, forgive the wrath and injury inflicted upon you.
Fourthly and most perfectly, abbot Joseph in Cassian, Conferences 16, chap. 27: "Give place to wrath, that is, let your hearts not be so contracted by the straits of impatience and pusillanimity that they cannot sustain the violent storm of commotion when it rushes in: but be enlarged in your hearts, receiving the adverse waves of wrath into the extended bosoms of charity, which suffers all things, sustains all things. And so let your mind, enlarged by the breadth of long-suffering and patience, have within itself the salutary recesses of counsels (note), in which the most foul smoke of wrath, somehow received and dispersed, may forthwith vanish." "Give therefore place to wrath," that is, receive angry words and blows into the bosoms of your heart, of your patience and charity, and there extinguish and overwhelm them by charity. So also Livy said, in book 1 of Decad 1: "Give space to anger."
For Paul is wont to rise gradually to more perfect things. But the second sense is simpler and genuine.
This soothing balm of the Apostle, indeed this love-philtre, S. Gregory Nazianzen impressed upon his Catholic flock at Constantinople: for when they themselves, harassed and oppressed by the Arians under Valens the Arian Emperor, after his death, under the Orthodox Emperor Theodosius, were planning to render them like for like, and to afflict them with equal annoyances, Nazianzen said these things to them: "Christ does not require these things from us, my flock, nor does the Gospel teach us thus. Let this be my vengeance, that those who have inflicted injuries upon us may obtain salvation. Confer benefits upon those who pursue you with hatred. But if your spirit boils vehemently, and does not allow itself to be restrained by anger — which is another matter — bring it about that you commit these things to Christ and reserve them to the future tribunal. For vengeance is Mine, I will repay, says the Lord." Having said these things, he placated the people, and drew them over to his opinion. Nor did he less swiftly perform in deed what he had taught his people in word. For when in the Council of Constantinople there had arisen contentions and dissensions of certain Bishops, because Nazianzen, without their being consulted, had been consecrated Bishop of Constantinople by others, he willingly yielded his place and rank, and thus addressed them: "I suppliantly beseech you by the Trinity itself, that you settle all things rightly and peacefully among yourselves: but if I am the cause of dissension among you, I ought by no means to seem more venerable than the prophet Jonah; cast me into the sea, and this tempest of disturbances will be calmed among you. Willingly indeed I shall suffer whatever you wish, though innocent, for the sake of your concord. Cast me from the throne, drive me from the city, only love truth and peace. Farewell, sacred pastors, and ever remember my labors." Having said this, he went to the Emperor Theodosius, asking for his dismissal: "I beseech you as a suppliant, that I be freed from these labors; let there be an end to envy, let the Bishops cultivate peace, and that by your effort. This office I demand from you, grant me this last benefit." Theodosius, admiring the man's virtue, scarcely at last acquiesced, and allowed Nectarius to be substituted for him. So Gregory the Presbyter in the Life of Nazianzen.
Verse 19: Revenge not yourselves; vengeance is mine, saith the Lord
19. FOR IT IS WRITTEN: VENGEANCE IS MINE (supply, belongs to me), I WILL REPAY, SAYS THE LORD. — Paul cites Deut. xxxii, 33, where it has לִי נָקָם וְשִׁלֵּם li nakam veshillem, that is, "to me belongs vengeance and to repay, or repayment;" understand "belongs." Our (Vulgate) translator renders it, "mine is vengeance," that is, it pertains to me, vengeance is owed to me; Vatablus renders it, "it is mine to avenge," as if to say: I God am the most just provider, judge, and avenger of all, whose proper office is to avenge injuries and to exact punishments for them.
It is an anticipation: for Paul here meets an objection, as if to say: You will object to me: If I do not avenge myself, then my injury will remain unavenged. I answer: By no means, because God will avenge it, and most gravely; for this vengeance will be not that of man but of God, whose works are mighty, magnificent, and terrifying. From the fact that God reserves this vengeance to Himself, we gather that it will be mighty and terrible. For as the Apostle, again citing these words to the Hebrews, x, 30, and explaining them, subjoins: "It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God." Therefore a man ought not to avenge himself: because this would be to snatch and seize upon the office of God, and to distrust His vengeance, which will be so great that those who inflict on us light injuries are rather worthy of commiseration and compassion, since they will fall into the hands of the living and angry God, into which it is fearful to fall. For they will experience not a human but a divine vengeance, worthy of God.
Beautifully and acutely S. Bernard, sermon 3 On the Annunciation: "Vengeance is Mine, and I will repay, says the Lord. So it is, indeed. He Himself will repay, but only if you reserve the vengeance for Him, if you do not take judgment away from Him, if you do not render evil to those who repay you with evil. He will execute judgment, but for him who suffers injury: He will judge in equity, but for the meek of the earth." And a little before: "Otherwise he who has not kept patience will lose justice, that is, he will lose life, that is, his own soul."
From this saying of Moses and of Paul, the Manichaeans, Anabaptists, Luther and Erasmus teach that among Christians it is not lawful for the magistrate to avenge by war or any other manner injuries to the commonwealth and the sins of the wicked. But they err most gravely: for the vengeance of the magistrate is of God, as appears in the next chapter, at the beginning. Therefore private vengeance is alone forbidden here, not that which is done through justice and public authority. For, as S. Augustine says, epist. 5: "Many things must be done even with the unwilling, who must be punished with a kind of benign severity, whose utility must be consulted rather than their will. For he from whom the license of iniquity is taken away is usefully overcome: since nothing is more unhappy than the happiness of sinners, by which penal impunity is fed, and the evil will, as an inner enemy, is strengthened."
Verse 20: If thy enemy be hungry, feed him
20. IF THINE ENEMY HUNGER, FEED HIM. — This saying is taken from chap. 25 of Proverbs, v. 21. For "feed," the Greek has the verb ψωμίζειν, which has emphasis and signifies to feed indulgently, as it were with bread broken into small bits, or to put morsels into the mouth — as mothers do for their little ones, or as birds insert food into the mouths of their chicks; or to offer food cut in little pieces for eating, which is done by some toward those who are singularly favored at banquets.
Morally, S. Augustine, in book I of the Sermon of the Lord on the Mount, chap. 33 and 34, gives six degrees of patience toward an enemy: the first is, not to wish to injure anyone; the second, if injured, to wish to injure only as much as one was injured, not more; the third, to wish to injure less than one was injured; the fourth, to be unwilling to injure, even though injured; the fifth, if injured, to show oneself ready to be injured more; the sixth and most perfect is, if injured, to do good and come to the aid of him who injures.
WHO ARE THE COALS UPON HIS HEAD. — First, Origen, Chrysostom, Theodoret, and Eucherius in Questions on the New Testament, explain it thus, as if to say: If you feed your enemy and heap all kindnesses upon him, then, if he persists in harming you, you will make him guilty of greater punishment and eternal fire. But this is not to the point, and to intend this would be the gravest hatred. Unless you say that this is spoken by the Apostle only as something that will happen of its own accord, for the consolation of the just who suffer persecution from the wicked; namely, that the wicked will not escape the vengeance of God if they persist in malice — the just not intending this, but permitting it.
Whence, secondly, some explain it simply thus: "You will heap coals of fire," that is, you will suffuse his face with a blush, so that, shamed by your kindness and overcome by charity, he may yield and turn his hatred into love. So our Gaspar Sanchez, on Isaiah chapter XIII, n. 15: "You will heap coals of fire upon his head, that is, you will make his face burn with that blood which shame summons to the cheeks; just as if you had heaped coals upon his head that would set his face aflame. For how should he not be ashamed, who sees so liberal and noble a soul offended by him, from whom in return for the injury he received such a benefit?"
Thirdly, the same author, on Isaiah XXXV at the end, brings forward another sense, as if to say: "For injuries received, confer kindnesses upon your enemies; for then the kindnesses will be like coals which you heap upon your enemies; because in this way enemies are tormented when they see that the injuries, for which they themselves expected blows, are repaid with kindnesses. Indeed, the usage of all languages bears it out, that those whom we receive either with shameful words or with harsh and unkind deeds, we are said to burn."
Fourthly, and authentically, the same opinion is held by S. Jerome, in his letter to Hedibia, Question I, and by S. Augustine, Sermon 168 On the Seasons: "You will heap upon the head (of the enemy, by feeding him) coals of fire," that is, coals fired not with wrath but with charity and love, that may inflame him to love in return. "There is no greater incitement to love," says S. Augustine in his treatise On Catechizing the Uninstructed, "than to anticipate by loving first," — for indeed it is the most powerful philter: if you wish to be loved, love.
These two verses the Apostle borrowed from Prov. XXV, 21 and 22, according to the Septuagint, which there renders, τοῦτο γὰρ ποιῶν, ἄνθρακας πυρὸς σωρεύσεις ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς αὐτοῦ, that is, "For doing this, you will heap, or pile up, coals of fire upon his head;" whereas the Hebrew has only "because you take up live coals, or kindle them, upon his head." S. Cyprian, in book III to Quirinus, reads: "You will pour living coals upon his head." By this phrase the Wise Man means that live coals (that is, love and kindnesses) are to be heaped together in so great a pile that their force exceeds the head of the man, namely the enemy, and the whole man is warmed from feet to head. For if the live coals are placed only at the bottom, the whole man is not soon warmed; but this will happen if they are heaped upon his head: for from the head spirit, motion, sense, and heat are derived into the whole body. As if to say: Feed and give drink to your enemy, and heap all kindnesses upon him; thus it will come to pass that, as though by live coals heaped together, their force exceeds his head and warms him and through him the whole man, and makes the enemy, with all enmity laid aside and as it were consumed by the fire of kindnesses, kindled wholly with love for him whom he formerly hated. Valerius Maximus also praised this manner of conquering in Cicero, book IV, 11, adding: "Sometimes more nobly are injuries conquered by kindnesses than balanced by stubborn mutual hatred." So Jansenius on Proverbs XXV. Add: he says "head" rather than "hands" or "feet," because it is the seat of the senses, of the imagination, of the mind and of affections, e.g. of love or hatred; whence the face also — whether serene and gentle, or austere and grim — at once shows the love or hatred of the head and the mind. The cold of hatred therefore in the mind and head is to be dissolved by kindnesses, as by coals heaped upon the head, and changed into the warmth of love — fittingly does he say and admonish.
Finally, just as a serpent has its venom in its head, so an enemy has his hatred there; whence Scripture teaches that his head must be sought out and crushed. As Hercules therefore is said not to have been able to kill the hydra by cutting off her heads — because, one being cut off, another sprang up at once — but to have finished off the hydra by scorching and roasting them: so likewise this hydra of enmity cannot be taken away by swords, by killing enemies, for when one is slain other sons or grandsons soon succeed who will avenge the death of their kin. Therefore by the fire of charity and by the coals of kindnesses heaped upon their heads must this hydra, this cold venom of envy and enmity, be scorched, smothered, and burnt up. Solomon alludes to that saying of his father David, Psalm CXIX: "The sharp arrows of the mighty, with coals that lay waste," as if to say: against a hostile and crafty tongue the only remedy is the word of God, sharp as an arrow, burning, consuming, and laying waste hostility and guile, like a coal. So S. Augustine in the same place, who also adds that the examples of the Saints and acts of charity are desolating coals against earthly and hostile thinking: and this is what Solomon says here, and after him Paul.
Tropologically, the coals of fire are the burning groans of penance, by which the pride of him is healed who grieves that he was an enemy to the man by whom his misery is relieved. So S. Augustine, book III On Christian Doctrine, chapter XVI.
Verse 21: Be not overcome by evil, but overcome evil by good
21. BE NOT OVERCOME BY EVIL. — "By evil," namely by the injury inflicted, and consequently by the demon who stirs up this injury and the one who inflicts it, that he may disturb both his own peace and yours, as well as conscience. Again, "be not overcome by evil," namely by your own impatience; for no one is hurt and overcome except by himself, says S. Chrysostom; for, as S. Ambrose says, book I On Duties, chapter XXXVI: "To avenge oneself is not an act of fortitude, but of abjection and timidity. He who avenges himself is conquered by his enemy, not conqueror." For if, hurt by another, you grieve and act with impatience, he has conquered you; if you bear it cheerfully, if you do good in return, you have conquered. "For this reason," says Tertullian in his book On Patience, "someone hurts you, that you may grieve; because the fruit of the one who hurts is in the grief of the one hurt. Therefore, when by not grieving you overturn his fruit, he himself must needs grieve at the loss of his fruit: then you will not only depart unhurt, but moreover, delighted by the frustration of your adversary, and shielded by his grief." Thus far Tertullian.
Indeed Aristotle, in book IV of his Ethics, chapter III, teaches that it belongs to the magnanimous to forget injuries: "For just as it belongs to a weak stomach not to be able to digest harder food, so it belongs to the pusillanimous not to be able to bear a harsher word." Hence Cicero says of Julius Caesar in his oration For Marcellus: "Caesar is wont to forget nothing but injuries" — whether he said this truly in praising Caesar, or feignedly in flattering him, says S. Augustine, Epistle 5. How far from this virtue is the common run of men, who (as Blessed Thomas More used to say) inscribe kindnesses upon dust, and injuries upon marble.
BUT OVERCOME EVIL WITH GOOD, — that is, surpass evil deeds with good deeds, conquer malice with goodness; both that through the wickedness of another your beneficence may be more illustrious and noble, and that you may overcome his wickedness by kindnesses, so that from wicked he may become upright and good, and from an enemy a friend. Moreover S. Augustine in the Sentences, sentence 247: "He does not overcome evil with good who is good on the surface and evil within, sparing in deed but raging in heart, gentle in hand but cruel in will."
Beautifully does S. Chrysostom here treat of this victory in the moral sense, where he teaches that an enemy is overcome not by retaliation, but by patience, contempt, and laughter: "In the Olympic contests consecrated to the devil, the law is to conquer by doing harm; in the stadium of Christ the law is wholly contrary: for here it is decreed that not he who strikes, but he who is struck, is to be crowned. That at last is of divine virtue, that is the heavenly stadium, that the theatre of angels. If we displayed meekness, we would be insuperable to all, and no injury would reach us. Ask the enemy whether he does not grieve, whether he does not consider himself conquered, when you laugh, when you despise his injuries?" See also Seneca On the Wise Man.
Hear Cleobulus, who was one of the seven Sages of Greece, with his rule of loving, equally pious and prudent: "Bind a friend to you by kindness, that he may love you more earnestly; but treat your enemy in such a way that you may sometime hope to have him as a friend. Yet caution is to be employed here, so that we may avoid the infamy of the former and the snares of the latter."
Aelian relates, in book XII, that Phocion, a most innocent man and a general, condemned to death and to drink poison, when the lictor offered him the cup, being asked by his kinsmen what he would command, answered: "I command him to restrain himself, that he may forget this draught which I now drink, offered to me by the Athenians."
No less rare and admirable was the example of Lycurgus, king of the Lacedaemonians, who, when by the fierce young man Alcander he had been deprived of an eye, and had received him from the people into his own power that he might handle and punish him at his pleasure, decided nothing harsher against the youth: nay rather, he most thoroughly instructed him, corrected his vices, and shaped him to every honesty; and so, when he was now endowed with good morals, he led him forth into the theatre to the people, saying: "Behold the young man, whom I received from you injurious and violent: now, frugal and popular, I restore him to you." The author is Plutarch in the Life of Lycurgus, and others.
Tyrrhaeus, the son of Pittacus, had been killed by a smith at Cumae. The Cumaeans sent the bound murderer to Pittacus, that he might exact punishment from him; but he, having heard the case, dismissed the man saying: "Pardon is mightier than penitence," feeling it more useful to forgive than to remember an injury and to avenge it.
King Antigonus used to say that "clemency can do more than violence."
King Darius envied the clemency of Alexander the Great, and prayed to the gods, "that either he might be able to surpass Alexander in clemency; or, if he himself were stripped of his kingdom, Alexander alone might reign in the kingdom of the Persians."
Trajan, when his friends found fault with him for being too clement, said: "Such an Emperor am I to private men, as I wish private men to be to me as Emperor."
The Emperor Titus did not avenge himself on his brother Domitian, who was plotting snares against him, but admonished him with these words: "What need is there for you to seek by parricide what will come to you with my willing it — nay, what you already have, as a partner in the empire?"
Theodosius the Younger, when asked why he punished none of those by whom he was hurt, replied: "Would that it were permitted me even to recall the dead to life!"
Toward private injuries the prince ought to be ready to forgive; but toward those who harm the commonwealth it is fitting that he be severe.
Augustus Caesar pardoned Cinna, who was plotting his death, and said: "Cinna, I give you life a second time — first when you were an enemy, now when you are a plotter and parricide;" and he offered him the consulship. Do you wish the outcome? He had Cinna as his most faithful friend ever after; Cinna alone was his heir. Suetonius in his Augustus.
S. Basil, homily 11 On Patience, recounts three examples of three illustrious sages. The first: "A certain plebeian was assailing Pericles with insults; but he ignored them: indeed they continued all day long, the one reviling, the other taking no notice. Then when evening was already coming on, and the man, because of the darkness, could scarcely depart, Pericles led him home with a torch, lest he himself defile the study of philosophy. The second: A certain man was striking Socrates, attacking him in the very face; but he did not resist, but allowed the man to vent his anger, until he was now swollen and his face bloodied from the blows. But when the man had ceased striking, Socrates is said to have done nothing else than to inscribe him upon his forehead, as if engraving the maker of some statue, and thus avenged himself on the man. The third: a certain man threatened Euclid with death, and swore that he would kill him; but he, on the contrary, swore that he would appease the man, and bring it about that he should not be of a mind hostile toward him."
Excellently indeed did that Christian virgin, illustrious for sanctity, in D. Tauler's Institutions, chapter XXXI, when on her deathbed, being asked how she had attained such great holiness, reply: "First, I complained of my afflictions to none but God, and at once I was either consoled or strengthened by the Lord; secondly, I was always most liberal in heart, and if at any time I could not give in deed, I gave at least in spirit; thirdly, to those by whom I had been hurt I repaid a singular kindness, which I would not have done had I not been hurt by them." Behold, this is the good, well-pleasing, and perfect will of God, which the Apostle pursues piece by piece from verse 2 up to here, and here completes and perfects.
Our Holy Father Ignatius excelled in this virtue, so that when the man who had robbed him of his money lay sick at Rouen and was deserted by all, he hastened from Paris and for three whole days, neither eating nor drinking, came to him, helped him with alms which he had begged together, restored him to health, and sent him into Spain with letters of recommendation. Again, he received his accuser into the Society. It is known that he so changed by a single visit Cardinals and others who were hostile to him and to the Society, that those who before were assailants now became patrons and nurturers of it. Did he not heap coals of fire upon their heads? Finally, in the Formula of Praying he prescribed to us that we should pray assiduously for kings, prelates, benefactors, and especially for the enemies of the Society.